Book III

BOOK III PALI GRAMMAR

BLANK

The Pali Grammar Section I o.kZfopkj & Orthography Section II Hkk"kkfu;e & Rules of change Section III ’kCnfopkj & Etymology A1 - Nouns - I General grammar II Words in groups III Sentences A2 - Pronouns - Classification same as above A3 - Adjectives - Classification same as above B - Verbs - I General grammar II Verbs in groups III Participles IV Participles in groups V General conversation C - Particles I Prefix II Indeclinables III Particles in groups IV Sentences Section IV Cardinals Section V Syntax Section VI General conversation Section VII General information

Section 1 ALPHABETS or o.kZ 41 o.kZfopkj (Orthography)

1. (i) ljk (Loj in Sanskrit) or Vowels in Pali are eight in number viz :— v a, vk a, b i, bZ i, m u, mQ u, , e, vkS o. Out of these v] b] m are short or jLl (:gLo)] and vk] bZ] mQ are long or nh?k (nh?kZ)_ , and vks are diphthongs.

(ii) Consonants or C;atuk are Thirty-three :- (a) d ka; [k kha; x ga; ?k gha; ˜ na (doXxks) p ch; N cha; t ja; > jha; ×k na (ooXxks) V ta; B tha; M da; < dha; .k na (VoXxks) r ta; Fk tha; n da; / dha; u na (roXxks) i pa; iQ pha; c ba; Hk bha; e ma (ioXxks) ; ya; j ra; y la; o va; l sa; g ha; G la; (b) The above consonants are classified into two categories – hard and soft. (i) The last three consonants in each group and ;] j] y] o] g and G together are the twentyone soft consonants.

(ii) The first two consonants in each group and l together are the eleven hard consonants.

(iii) ˜] ×k] .k] u] e µ are nasal (iv) la;qDr O;atu %µ Conjunct Consonants. Øï kka; D[k kkha; D; kya; fØ kri; d] Do kva: [; khya; [o khva; Xx gga; X?k ggha; xz gra; ˜ï] ˜~d nka; …] ˜~[k nkha; ˜ı] ˜~x nga; †] ˜~?k ngha; Pp cca; PN ccha; T×t] jja; T> jjha; ××k nna; ×g nha; ×p] ÛÓ nca; ×N ncha; ×t] ×t nja; ×> njha; Vð tta; Vò ttha; Mó dda; Mò ddha; ..k nna; .V nta; .B ntha; .M ndha; Ùk tta; RFkk ttha; Ro tva; =k tra; í dda; … ddha; nz dra; } dva; Ło dhva; Ur nta; UFk ntha; Un nda; U/ ndha; Uu nna; Ug nha; Ii ppa; IiQ ppha; Cc bba; CHk bbha; C; bya; cz bra; Ei mpa; EiQ mpha; Ec mba; EHk mbha; Ee mma; Eg mha; Õ; yya; Õg yha; Yy] Š lla; Y; lya; Yg lha; Og vha; Ll ssa; Le sma; Lo sva; ª hma; à hva; Gg lha.

(iii) vuqLokj or fuXxfgrk i.e - ez pronounced as vga and written as Ahan. (iv) folxZ (%)

(v) There are no vowels ˝] ˝] ˘] ˘] ,s and vkS nor are there the consonants ’k and "k in Pali. l substitutes ’k and "k in Pali. (v) All Pali words end with vowels, e.g.:— nf.Mu~ = n.Mh in Pali.

An inherent v is present in all consonants.

2. Pronounciation; p] t] and > are respectively pronounced as in pgk] f>Eek and >dkl3. Mode of writing certain words. xaxk ¾ x˜ık iafMr ¾ if.Mr flyi ¾ fyEi iap ¾ iÛÓ va/ ¾ vU/

4. Mode of writing numbers.

ßœß ¾ ,dkf/da lra_ ,dÙkqj lra üüł ¾ vVòfolfr f}lra ßüœ ¾ ohlfr vf/d lra

Section 2 Hkk"kkfu;e (Rules of Change)

(A) Vowel Changes :–

1. ‰ is changed to, v] b] m] e.g. :– (i) ?k‘r ¾ ?kr (Ghee); Ñr ¾ dr (done); x‘g ¾ xg (house) e‘r ¾ er (dead). (ii) ‰f"k ¾ bfl_ ‰f… ¾ bf…_ /‘fr ¾ f?kfr (courage)_ e‘x ¾ fex (deer) (iii) ‰rq ¾ mrq_ ‰tq ¾ mtq (straight); ‰"kHk ¾ mlHk (an ox); o‘"kHk ¾ cqlHk (ox)

2. v is changed to b] m] ,] vk- (i) panzek ¾ pfUnek (ii) vlw;k ¾ mlw;k (hatred)

(iii) ,d’kÕ;k ¾ ,dlÕ;k (iv) vydk ¾ vkydk

3. vk is changed to v] mlaektZuh lEeqTtuh (broom)

4. b is changed to m] ,] v- (i) b"kq ¾ mlq (arrow): b{kq ¾ mNq (Sugarcane) (ii) fu"kkn ¾ uslkn_ foeŁ; ¾ oseT> (iii) i‘fFkoh ¾ iBoh

5. m is changed to v] b] vks- (i) xq# ¾ x# (ii) iq:"k ¾ iqfjl (iii) izkeq[; ¾ ikeksD[k_ ’kq.Mk ¾ lks.Mk (Trunk) :

6. , is changed to vks- }s"k ¾ nksl

7. ,s is changed to ,] boS’kk[k ¾ oslk[k ,sÜo;Z ¾ bLlfj; (riches)

8. vks is changed to mgks=k ¾ gqÙk (offerings to god)

9. vkS is changed to vks] m] vk] v- (i) vkS"k/ ¾ vksl/ (ii) ekSfÙkQd ¾ eqfÙkd_ vkSRlqD; ¾ mRlqd (iii) xkSjo ¾ xkjo (respect)

(iv) lkSE; ¾ lEe (friend)

10. The visarga (:) preceded by v is changed to m after v and is dropped after other vowels e.g. :– cq…k% ¾ cq…k_ efr% ¾ efr_ ÜoJw ¾ lLlw (B) Consonantal Changes :– I. (i) d changed to [k dhy ¾ [kky (nail)_ ’kqud ¾ lqu[k (ii) x changed to d & rMkx ¾ rGkd (bottom)

?k changed to g & y?kq ¾ ygq (small)

(iii) M changed to G & xqM ¾ xqG (jaggery)

& ØhMk ¾ dhGk (game)

V changed to G & LiQfVd ¾ iQfGd n changed to G & nksgn ¾ nksgG (iv) < changed to Ÿg & vk"kk< ¾ vklkŸg (v) i changed to iQ & ij’kq ¾ iQjlq (axe)

(vi) Hk changed to g & izHkq ¾ igq (almighty)

(vii) ; changed to o & vk;q/ ¾ vkoq/ (viii) j changed to y & ek#r ¾ ekyqr (air)

(ix) y changed to u & yykV ¾ uykV (forehead)

(x) ’k] "k changed to N] l & ’kkod ¾ Nkid & vkdk’k ¾ vkdkl (xi) / changed to g & #f/j ¾ :fgj (blood)

(xii) g changed to / or Hk & bg ¾ b/ (here)

& fe=knzksgh ¾ feÙknwHkh II. Conjunct-consonantal changes :–

1. A long vowel is made short when followed by a conjunct, consonant or an anuswara.

(i) ekxZ ¾ eXx_ ektkZj ¾ eTtkj (cat)

bZ’oj ¾ bLlj (god); ijkØe ¾ ijkØïe (ii) a) ’kkyke~ ¾ lkya_ unhe~ (µ) ¾ ufln (iii) b) when the anuswara on short vowels is dropped the latter are lengthened fllg ¾ lhg_ na"V“k ¾ nkBk_ lana’k ¾ laMkl (c) when long vowel has an anuswara becomes short :– lukru ¾ luaru (old)

(d) when a long vowel is accompanied with anuswara, it becomes short :– ekal ¾ eal (meat)

2. (i) The first member of a conjunct consonant (la;qÙkQ tksMk{kj) in a sanskrit word is dropped in its Pali form and the remaining member is doubled e.g. :– HkqÙkQ ¾ HkqÙk_ ’kCn ¾ lí- (ii) If the first member of a conjunct consonant, so doubled, is the second letter of a class (oXx), it is changed to the first letter of the same class; and if it is the fourth, it is changed to the third :– vFkZ → vFFk → vR; as Hkw is the second letter of the roXxnqX/ → nqŁ/ → nq… & milk yqC/ → yqŁ/ → yq… & greedy (iii) The remaining first member of a conjunct consonant is

not doubled at the beginning of a word e.g. :– L[kfyr → [kfyr (mistake)

Nor is it doubled after a niggahita or anuswara e.g. :– la=kkl → larkl (fear)

This doubling is optional in a compound e.g. :– i××kk; lfgrks → li××kks or lIi××kks (wise)

(iv) ; is doubled after ,_ e.g. xs;e~ → xsÕ;a (song); is;e~ → isÕ;a (drink) (v) When e~] u~] ;~] or n~ stands as the last member of a conjunct consonant, it is dropped and the remaining member is doubled Rule (i) is superseded by this and by the subsequent rule (vii) e.g. ;qXe → ;qXx (pair); Le‘fr → lfr (rule iii) (recollection); uXu → uXx_ lkSE; → lksEe] Łoal → /al] (destruction).

Exception :– When e~] u~] ;~] o~ are combined with g] this change does not take place. e.g. lgÔ → lÕg (bearable).

(vi) e is not dropped in the conjunct consonants Ye and Ue e.g. mUekn → mEekn_ dYek"k → dEekl (spotted); tkYe → teks (a rogue); fuEu → fuUu (deep). Le is either ratained or changed to Eg e.g. HkLe → HkLe_ rfLeu~ → rfEg (in it) m"ek → mLek (heat).

(vii) j~ whether the initial or final member of a comjunct consonant is dropped and the remaining member is doubled. e.g. ekxZ → eXx_ o.kZ → o..k_ pØ → pØï_ nfjnz → nfGí_ exceptions vkn’kZ → vknkl (mirror); nh?kZ → nh?k_ ’kh"kZ → lhl (the head)

(viii) ;Z is changed to fj; and the preceding vowel if long is made short. e.g. vkpk;Z → vkpfj;_ → oh;Z → fofj; (effort) Hkk;kZ → Hkfj;k_ lw;Z → lwfj;_ vk;Z → vfj; → vÕ;- (ix) gZ is hanged to jg_ e.g. vgZr → vjgfr- (deserves), xgZfr → xjgfr (censures). vUr£gr → vUrjfgr (concealed).

(x) b is inserted between the two members of a conjunct consonant whose final member is y- e.g. Dys’k → fdyslks (torture); Xyku → fxyku (ill); Eyku → feyku (faded).

(xi) Similarly b is inserted between the two members of the conjunct consonants in the words T;k_ ªh_ L;kr~_ pSR;_ oTj_ gÔl_ Jh etc.:– T;k → ft;k (Bow - string)); g → ghjks (shame); L;kr~ → fl;k (may be); pSR; → psfr; (tample); oTj → oftj (Diamond); gÔl~ → fgÕ;ks (yesterday); Jh → fljh (prosperity).

(xii) o~ in combination with another consonant is changed to c e.g. loZ → lOc_ dkO;a → dOca- (xiii) R;~] ;w] Ł;~ and Lr are respectively changed to p~] t~] >~ and Fk~ at the beginning and to Pp~] Tt~] T;~] RFk~ & in the middle of the words. e.g. R;kx → pkx_ u‘R; → pPp_ → e; → eTt_ |qfr → tqfr_ Ł;ku → >ku_ izFkeŁ;kue~ → iBeT>kua_ Lrkeu~ → /ke (strength).

Exception : m|ku → mÕ;ku (garden).

(xiv) LFk~ and "B~ are changed to B~ and V~ according to their position in a word. e.g. :– LFkku → Bku; → x‘gLFk → xgŒò_ dk"B → dŒò ("B~ is changed to Vw] whenever it is either in the middle or end of a word). (xv) F;~] Üo] Rl~ and Il are changed to PN e.g. :– rF; → rPN (truth); vkÜp;Z → vPNfj;_ ifÜpe → ifPNe (behind); oRl → nPNks (calf); vIljk → vPNjk.

(xvi) "d~] Ld~ and {k~ are changed to [k or D[k~ according to their position in a word e.g. :– ’kq"d → lqD[k_ nq"dj → VqD[kj_ LdU/ → [kU/ks_ ueLdkj → ueØïkj_ fHk{kq → fHkD[kq_ {khj → [khj_ {k; → [k;_ (when at the beginning {k is changed to [k, and N, when at the end or middle it is changed to D[k) {kek → Nek % b{kq → mPNq (Sugar-cane)

(xvii) Li~ and "i~ are changed to iQ~] Ii~ and IiQ~] Ii respectively. e.g. LiUnue~ iQUnua_ ouLifr → ouIifr_ iq"i → iqIiQ_ prq"in~ → prqIin~- (xviii) U;~] .;~ and K~ are changed to ×k~ or ××k e.g. U;k; → ×kk;_ dU;k → d××kk (when in the middle or at the end); vj.; → vj××k_ Jke.; → lke××k_ Kku → ×kk.k_ iKk → i××kk_ ÑrK → dr××kq Conjunct consonants mentioned in Rules xiii to xviii, preceded by anuswara undergo those changes which they would do at beginning of words, e.g. dka{kk → da[kk- (xix) ".k is changed to .g~ e.g. m".k → m.g_ Ñ".k → d.g_ m".kh; → m.ghl ikf".kZ → if.g- (xx) vc changed to vks e.g.; O;ogkj → oksgkj_ to.k → yks.kh Salt. (xxi) O; changed to o e.g.; O;k;ke → ok;ke_ O;oLFkk → ooŒòk (xxii) Üu changed to ×g e.g.: izÜu → i×g III. Ending Consonants (i) a consonant is dropped at the end of a word. e.g. :– Hkxoku~ → Hkxok- (ii) But the ending e~ and ending r~ or n~ of a pronoun are substituted by an anuswara e.g. :– cq…e~ → cq…a (to Buddha); ,rr~ → (n) → ,ra (this, that). (iii) The ending visarga (:) or l~ or j~ preceded by v is changed to vks] together with the preceding v_ and is dropped when preceded by other vowels. e.g. loZr% → lCcrks_ cq…k% → cq…k_ #fp% → #fp_ fHk{kq → fHkD[kq- (iv) Ending V~ of a pronoun (lCcuke) or in an milxZ (prefix or suffix) and at the end j~] often reappear when followed by vowels. e.g. :– ,ra $ vgksfl = ,rngksfl (this happened); rko $ ,RFk = rkonsRFk (also); ikrks $ ,o = ikrjso] ikrks¿o- (v) ;~] o~] e~] r~] and n~ → are often inserted as revivals from sanskrit forms or by analogy to such insertions.

lfd $ ,o = lfdnso_ iqu $ ,o = iqujso] iqunso] ;ko $ vRFka = ;korRFka

Section 3 ’kCnfopkj (Etymology)

Parts of speech :– In pali there are eight parts of speech as in English though the Pali Grammarians do not classify them in the same way. Their general classification is :– I. Nouns (uke) :– This group includes substantives, pronouns and adjectives. Pronouns are simple pronouns when they stand alone in a sentence, and admit of all genders as they stand for every person or thing which are in different genders. Pronouns become adjectives when they qualify other nouns. Pronouns have no vocative forms. Adjectives in Pali are treated like nouns because they take all the inflections of the nouns and are declinable. Almost all pronouns become adjectives when they are used before a substantive of the same gender, number and case. As the adjectives qualify nouns, which are of different genders and numbers, they must agree with their substantives in gender, number and case.

Nouns are divided into five classes, viz. :– (i) ukeuke ¾ Substantives and proper nouns (includes common, proper and abstract nouns).

(ii) lCcuke ¾ Pronouns.

(iii) lekluke ¾ Compound nouns formed by combination of two or more words. e.g. jktiqÙk.

(iv) if…ruke ¾ Derivatives from nouns or Secondary Derivatives are formed from a substantive or a primary derivative (verbal derivative) by adding another suffix to it. e.g. ukok (ship) $ bdk (in the meaning of engaged) ¾ ukfod (sailor).

(v) fdrduke ¾ Verbal derivatives otherwise called Primary Derivative, are formed from the verbal root itself by adding suffixes. e.g. nk (To giver) $ (vd ¾ nk;d (giver); uh (to lead) $ rq ¾ usrq (leader). About 75% of Pali nouns are derived from Sanskrit.

A. As in English, in Pali there are three genders and two numbers. (i) Gender (flyx) (i) Masculine ¾ iqfŠ˜ı (ii) Feminine ¾ bfRFkfŠ˜ı (iii) Neuter ¾ uiqaldfŠ˜ı

(ii) Number (opu) (i) Singular ¾ ,dopu (ii) Plural ¾ cgqopu B. Nouns in Pali are declined in eight cases according to their gender and termination. Eight cases (foHkfÙkQ) namely :– (i) iBek (izFkek) ¾ Nominative, denotes the subject or drkZ- (ii) nqfr;k (f}rh;k) ¾ Accusative, denotes the object or deZ- (iii) rfr;k (r‘rh;k) ¾ Ablative of agent and of instrument, denotes the person or thing with or by whom something is performed. dkj.k] lk/u- (iv) prqRFkh (prqFkhZ) ¾ Dative, the person to whom or for whom something is given laiznku (to, at, towards).

(v) i××keh (iapeh) ¾ Ablative of separation viknku. (vi) NŒòh ("k"Bh) ¾ Genitive or possessive in English. laca/. (vii) lÙkeh (lIreh) ¾ Locative shows the place, in, on, upon, at, etc. vfŁkdj.k. (viii)vkyiu (lacks/u) ¾ Vocative is used to address person. The inflections or case endings vary according to gender and number e.g., masculine words or stems ending in A (v) declined as follows :– Masculine Nouns ending in A (v). We may take Buddha and decline it thus :– Case Singular Plural (Terminations) (Terminations)

Nominative (iBek) cq…ks (vks) cq…k (vk)

Accusative (nqfr;k) cq…a (e~) cq…s (,)

Instrumental (rfr;k) cq…su (,u) cq…sfg] cq…sfHk (,fg] ,fHk) Dative (prqRFkh) cq…k;] cq…Ll (vk;] Ll) cq…ua (ua) Ablative (i×peh) cq…Egk] cq…Lek] cq…sfg] cq…sfHk cq…k] (Egk] Lek] vk) (,fg] ,fHk)

Genitive (NŒòh) cq…Ll (Ll) cq…kua (vkua)

Locative (lÙkeh) cq…s] cq…flLe cq…slq (,lq)

cq…fEg] (,] flLe] fEg)

Vocative (vkyiu) cq…] cq…k (vk) cq…k (vk)

Masculine nouns ending in b and m are declined differently. So also feminine and neuter nouns are declined differently depending on their endings. WORDS IN GROUPS II. Nouns (uke) :– Nons in the following groups are shown with their nominative singular endings in order to help the student in finding their respective genders. The words ending in ‘O’ are masculine; most of those ending in ‘a’ (vk) are feminine : those ending with ‘N’ (vuqLokj) are neuter. The adjectives are given in their stems with the figure 3 after them, in order to indicate that they should be declined according to the gender number and case of their substantives. Neutral nouns are shown by ‘nt’.

1. Human Beings, euqLlk Boy, nkjdks] dqekjks Brahman, czkª.kks Cripple, ihBlEih (m)

Dwarf, okeuks Enemy, vfj] liÙkks Eunuch, i.Mdks Fool, ckyks] eqŸgks Friend, feÙkks Girl, nkfjdk] dqekjh Hermit, rkilks Infant, Fkuiks King, jktk] Hkwifr (m)

Lord, lkeh] vf/ifr (m)

Low-caste-man, p.Mkyks Maiden, ;qorh] r#.kh (f)

Man, iqfjlks] euqLlks Master, lkeh] iHkw (m)

Millionaire, lsΘh (m)

Miser, yq…ks] ePNjh Mystic, ;ksxh (m)

Monk, eqfu] le.kks Nun, le.kh] fHkD[kq.kh (f)

Nurse, /krh (f)

Old-man, egŠdks Old-woman, egfŠdk Prince, jktiqÙkks Princess,, jkt/qrk Queen, jkftuh] egslh (f)

Servant, lsodks Warrior, [kfÙk;ks Widow, fo/ok Widower, erHkfj;ks Wise man, if.Mrks Woman, bRFkh] ofurk] ukjh Young man, r#.kks] ;qok (m)

Young woman, r#.kh] ;qorh (f)

2. Persons according to their occupations Actor, uVks Artisan, flfIi (m)

Artist, fpÙkdkjh Author, xUFkdkjks Baker, iwidkjks Barber, ugkfirks Blacksmith, dEekjks Book-binder, iksRFkdflcdks

Broker, d;foØïf;dks Butcher, ekefodks] ilq?kkrdks Caravan-leader, lRFkokgks Carpenter, oîôdh] (m) Carter, lkdfVdks Charioteer, jFkkpfj;ks] lkjFkh (m) Cheat, o×pdks] lBks Chemist, jlk;fudks Clerk, ys[kdks Compositor, o..k;kstdks Confectioner, iwfi;ks Cook, lqnks Cow-herd, xksikyks Cultivator, dLldks Dancer, uVks % uÙkdks Dealer in carpets, iknkfjdks Dealer in cloth, ofRFkdks Dealer in furniture, nk:Hkf.Mdks Dealer in liquor, eTtfoØï;h Dealer in medicine, vkslf/dks Dealer in oil, rsfydks Dealer in perfume, xfU/dks Dealer in swine, lwdfjdks Dealer in wood, dfŒðdks Driver, iktdks Drunkard, lqjklks.Mks Dyer, j×tdks Elephant-keeper, gfRFkxksidks Engineer, ;UrflIih (m) Farmer, dLldks Fisherman, dscŒðks Fish-monger, efPNdks Foreman, dEeUruk;dks Fortune-teller, >D[kf.kdks Fowler, lkdqf.kdks Gambler, vD[k/qÙkks Gamester, twrdkjks Gardener, mÕ;kuikyks Garland-maker, ekykdkjks Gate-keeper, }kjikyks Goat-herd, vtikyks Gold-smith, lqo..kdkjks Grass-dealer, fV.kgkjdks Harlot, xf.kdk Hireling, HkVdks Horse-keeper, vLlxksidks Hunter, C;k/ks] yqíks Jockey, vLlkpfj;ks Juggler, bUntkfydks Labourer, dEedkjks Lawyer, uhfrosnh (m)

Lutanist, osf.kdks Mason, bŒòdoîôdh] (m) Mathematician, x.kdks Merchant, okf.ktks Messenger, nwrks] lklugkjks Musician, okndks Orator, dfFkdks Painter, o..kkysidks Pedlar, dPNiqVks Physician, osTtks Player, dhGdks Potter, dqEHkdkjks Preacher, nsldks Printer, eqíkidks Publisher, idkldks Rice-merchant, r.Mqfydks Scavenger, iqØï˜lks Sculptor, flykoîôdh] (m) Shepherd, es.Mikyks Shoe-maker, mikgfudks Shoe-keeper, vkif.kdks Singer, xk;dks Slave, nklks (m), nklh (f) Stationer, fyfiHkf.Mdks Surveyor, Hkwfeekidks] jTtqxkgdks Tailor, rq..kok;ks Tanner, pEedkjks Teacher, vkpfj;ks] flD[kkidks Thief, pksjks

Trainer of horses, vLlnedks Turner, pqUndkjks Warrior, ;ks…ks Washerman, jtdks] /ksodks Weaver, isldkjks

3. Relations, tkrdk Aunt, (maternal uncle’s wife) ekrqykuh (f)

(paternal uncle’s wife) pqŠekrk Blood relation, lkyksfgrks Brother, Hkkrk (m)

Brother-in-law, dkyks Child, nkjdks Cousin, (Paternal aunt’s son), firqPNkiqÙkks Cousin, (paternal uncle’s son), ekrqPNkiqÙkks Cousin (maternal uncle’s son), pwyfirqiqÙkks Daughter, /hrk Daughter-in-law, lq.khlk Elder-brother, tsŒòHkkrk Elder-sister, tsŒòHkfxuh Father, firk (m)

Father-in-law, llqjks Father’s sister, firqPNk Grand-father, vÕ;dks_ firkegks Grand-mother, vfÕ;dk_ ekrkegh (f) Grand son, uÙkk (m)

Great-grand-father, eÕ;dks Great-grand-mother, ifÕ;dk] ekrkegh (f)

Great-grand-son, iuÙkk (m)

Husband, ifr] HkÙkk (m)

Husband’s brother, nsojks Maternal Uncle, ekarqyks Mother, ekrk] vEek Mother in-law, lLlq (f)

Mother’s sister, ekrqPNk Nephew, (sister’s son), HkfxusÕ;ks Nephew, (Brother’s son), HkkrqiqÙkks Niece, (Sister’s daughter), Hkkfx.ksÕ;k Niece (Brother’s daughter), Hkkrq/hrk Paternal uncle, pwyfirk (m)

Sister, Hkfxuh (f)

Sister in-law, uuUnk Son, iqÙkks Son-in-law, tkekrk (m)

Wife, Hkfj;k Younger-brother, df.kΘHkkrk (m) Younger-sister, df.kΘHkfxuh (f) Abdomen, ofRFk (nt)

Ankle, xkIiQdks Anus, xqMa Arm, ckgq (m)

Arm-pit, dPNks Artery, /euh (f)

Back, fifΘ (f)

Back bone, fifΘd.Vdks Belly, dqfPN (mf)

Bile, fiÙka Blood, yhfgra] #f/ja Body, dk;ks_ ljhja Bone, vfŒò (nt)

Bowels, vUra

4. Members, Organs and Component parts of the body; ljhjko;ok p ,o dksΘklk

Brain, eRFkyq˜ıa Breast mjks Breast of Woman, /uks Cheek, diksyks Chin, pqcqda Collar-bone, vD[kdks Crown of the head, eq…k (m) Ear, d..kks_ lksra Elbow, dIijks Excrement, cPpa Eye, vfD[k_ u;ua Eye-brow Hkeqdk Eye-lash, i[kqea Face, vkuua_ cnua Fang, nkBk Fat, esnks Female-organ, ;ksuh (f) Finger, v˜ı˜fy (f);

Little finger, df.kVòk˜ı˜fy (f) Flank, iLla Flesh, eala Foot, iknks Fore-head, yykVks] uykVks Fore-finger, rTtuh (f) Hand, gRFkks] ikf.k (f) Hair, dslks_ On the body yksea Head, flla Heart, ân;a Heel, if.M] (f)

Hip, t?kua_ dfV (f)

Jaw, guqdk Kidney, oØïa Knee, tk.kq (m)

Knot of hair, /fEeŠks Leg, iknks Lip, vksVòks] nUrkoj.ka Liver, ;dua Lungs, iÝiQkla Lymph, olk Marrow of the bone, vfVòfe×tk Mesentery, vUrxq.ka Nail, u[kks Neck, xhck Nerve, fljk Nipple, pwpqda Nose, uklk] /k.ka Outer-skin, Nfo (f)

Palm, gRFkrya Phlegm, lsEga Pleura, fdykseda Pupil of the eye, vfD[krjk Pup iw;ks Rib, iQlqdk Saliva, [ksyks Semen virile, lqØïa Shank, tU?kk Shoulder, valdwVks Sinew, ugk# (m)

Skin, rpks Skill, lhldikyks Snot, fl†kf.kdk Sole, iknrya Sweat, lsnks Synovial fluid yfldk Tear, vLlq (nt)

Thigh, mQ# (m)

Thumb, v˜ı˜Vòks Toe, iknk˜ı˜fy (f)

Tooth, nUrks Urine, eqÙka

Barley, ;oks Bean, eklks Beaf, xkseala Beverage, ikua Bread, xks/qeiwiks Butter, uksuhra Butter-milk, rkd Clearified butter, ?kra Cake, iwoks_ iqiks Candy, [k.Mks Chillies, efjpa Coffee, dkWiQh (f)

Corn, /××ka Cummin-seed, thjda Curd, nf?k (nt)

Curry, O;××kua Curry-stuffs, dVqdHk.Ma Drink, ikuda Fat, olk Fish, ePNks_ Dried fish, lqD[kePNks Salted-fish, yks.kePNks Flour, fiVòa Fried-flour, lÙkq (m) Food, Hkkstua] vkgkjks Hard food, [kknuh;a Soft food Hkkstuh;a Garlic, ylq.ka Ghee, ?kra Gingilly, frya Grain, /k××ka Gram, pudks Green-peas, eqXxks Honey, e/q (nt)

Jaggery, xqGks Kernel, fe×tk Liquor, (distilled) lqjk (Fermented), esj;a Meat, eala_ Dried meat, oYywja Essence of meat, ealjlks Milk, [khja Molasses, iQ.khra Mustard, fl…RFkks Mutton, ,Gdeala Oil, rsya Onion, iy.Mq (m)

Paddy, ohgh (m)

Pepper, dksyda Pork, lwdjeala Rice, r.Mqya_ Rice-boiled, vksnuks_ HkÙka Rice-gruel, ;kxq (f) Salad, mÙkfjHk˜ıks_ lkyoks Salt, yo.ka] yks.ka Sesame, frya Sweetmeat, [kTtda Syrup, ikua_ ikuda Tamarind, fp×p Tea, pgk Treacle, iQk.khra Turmeric, gfGfí (f)

Venison, fexeala Vinegar, fcy˜ıks Wine, eqfídkloks Yam, dUnks_ vkyqoks Adjectives Boiled, lsfnr Cooked, iØï] ifpr Fried, HkfTtr Roasted, v˜ıkjiØïks

5. Victuals, vkgkjk

Ash pumpkin, dqEHk.Mks Banana, dnfyiQya Bitter-gourd, dk[ksŠks Bread-fruit, ycqta Brinjal, okfV˜ıuks Cabbage, xksGiÙka Coconut, ukfGdsja Cucumber, ddkjh (f)

Dates, [kTtwjh (f)

Egg-fruit, okfV˜ıuks Fig, mnqEcja Fruit, iQya Gourd, ykcq (nt)

Sanke-gourd, iVksya Grape, eqfídk Horse-radish, flXxq (nt)

Jujube, cnja Jack-fruit, iQula Ladies-finger, Hk.Mkdh (f) Lotus-root, eqGkya Mango, vEca Mangosteen, e/qfrEc: (nt)

Marmelo, csyqoa Nut, iQya Orange, vEchja Palmyra nut, rkyiQya Papaw, okrdqEHkiQya Pineaplle, e/qdsrdh_ cgqusÙkiQya Pumpkin yellow ihrdqEHk.Mks Radish, ewydks Rhubarb, rEcdks Rose-apple, tEcw (f)

Sugar-cane, mPNq (nt)

Water-melon, ofŠHkks Wood-apple, dfiRFka Adjectives usually used for qualifying these nouns Fresh, vfHkuo Ripe, iØï Unripe, vked

6. Vegetable, Fruits and Nuts, lkdk iQykiQykuh p

7. Garments and Ornaments, oRFkkHkj.kkuh Bangle, oy;a_ Armlet, ds;wja Anklet, uwiqjks Belt, dk;cU/ua Blanket, dEcya Bracelet, oy;a] dVda Calico, dIikflda Chaplet, ls[kjks Cloth, oRFka_ for bathing, mndlkfVdk fibre-cloth, [kksea_ woolen-cloth, dEcya Collar, thosÕ;a Crest-gem, pqGke.kh (m)

Crown, fdfjVa Diadem, m.ghla Ear-ring dq.Mya Garland, ekyk Garment, lkVda Inner garment, vUrjokldks Lower garment, fuoklua Upper garment, mÙkjh;a_ mÙkjkl˜ıks Girdle, dfVcU/ua Girdle of a woman, es[kyk Handkerchief, gRFkiq×Nua Hat, ukfGiÙkks_ lhlkoj.ka Hem (of a garment), nlk Jacket, d×pqdks Necklace gkjks_ thokHkj.ka Ointment fragrant, foysiua Overcoat, nh?kd×pqdks Perfume, lqxU/ks

Perfuming, oklua Pin, lykdk Rag, uUrda Ring, v˜ı˜fyeqík Signet, eqfídk Sandals, mikgua Scent, xU/lkjks Shoe, iknqdk Silk, dkslsÕ;a Smoking pipe, /weusÙka Soap, ugkuh;a String of pearls, eqÙkkoyh (f) Toilet powder, oklpq..ka Toilet-box, okldj.Mks Towel, eq[kiq×pua Turban, lhlosBua Umbrella, NÙk Veil, eq[kkcjua Walking stick, dÙkj;fVò (f)

Watch, gksjkykspua

8. Parts of a house and building materials xsg˜ık] xsgksidj.kkuh p Barn, dksVòa Bathing closet, ugkudksVòdks Beam, rqyk Bed-room, l;fu/ja Board, iQydks Bolt, vXxya Brick, p;fuVòdk Cement, dkGpq..ka Compound, v˜ı.ka Dining-room, Hkkstulkyk Door, }kja Door-frame, }kjckgk Drawing-room, ifVØïeua Eaves, fuEca Garage, jFklkyk Gate, }kjdksVòdks Granary, dqlwyks Hall, lkyk Hearth, m}ua Hinge, }kjkoVðdks House, ?kja_ xsga Inner room, vksojdks Key, dqf×pdk Key-hole, dqf×pdkfooj.ka Lavatory, o×pdqfV (f)

Lime, lsrpq..ka Mortar, p;uysiks Pillar, FkEHkks Pinnacle, dwVkxkjks Rafter, xksikulh (f)

Roof, Nnua Room, xCHkks Sand, okyqdk Stable, vLllkyk Stair, lksik.kks Store, míkflrks Terrace, osfndk Threshold, mEekjks Timber, dVðau_ nk# (nt)

Top-plate, iD[kiklks Upper-floor, iklknrya Verandah, vkfyUnks Wall, fHkfÙk (f)

Wall-plate, l†kVks Window, okrikua Window-shutter, dokVa Window with a balcony, lhgi×tjks Women’s apartment, bRFkkoxja] vksjks/ks

Ash, pkfjdk Basket, fiVda Bag, iflCcdks Bed, e×pks Bed sheet, e×pRFkj.ka Bench, fulhnuiQydks Betel-server, rEcqyisGk Bottle, ukfGdk Box, e×tqlk Broom, lEeiTtuh (f)

Brush, cky.Mwidks Carpet, dkstoks Chair, ihBa Charcoal, v˜ıkjks Corn measure, ukfG (f)

Couch, eŠ.dks Cup, dldks Desk, ys[k.kiQydks Dish, Fkkfy (f)

Fire, vfXx (m)

Fire-brand, vykVa Fire-place, m…ua Fire-wood, nk# (nt)

bU/ua Furniture, nk#Hk.Ma Glass-bottle, dkprqEcks Glass-ware, dkpHk.Ma Hand-basket, ifPN (f)

Jar, (big) vj×tjks Jug, dqf.Mdk Knife, lRFka] Nqfjdk Ladle, MfCc (f)

Lamp, inhiks Lamp-wick, nhioVðh (f)

Leathern bag, HkLrk Lid, fiVkua Lid for a pot, ljkoks Mat, fdy×tks Mirror, vknkUuks Mortar, mnD[kyks Mosquito net, edlkoj.ka Needle, lqfp (m)

Pestle, eqlyks Pillow, foEokgua Pillow-case, fpfefydk Plate (to eat from), dalks Pot, pkfV (f)

Pot-stand pqEcVda Purse, iflCcdks Rattan chair, HkíihBa Rope, jTtq (f)

Scales, rqyk Scissors, dÙkfjdk Seat, vklua Sewing machine, flCcu;Ura Sieve, fiVòpkfydk Spittoon, [ksyeŠdks Spoon, dVNq (m)

Stone to grind on, fulnks Stone to grind with fulniksrks Table, HkkstuiQydks Thong, ojÙkk Thread, lqÙka_ rUrq (m)

Threstiold, mEekj (m)

Tray, dalk/jks Vessel, Hkktua Clay-vessel, vkfefÙkda Bronze-vessel, dalHkktua Water-pot, ?kVks Winnowing basket, lqIiks

9. Things that are in a house, xsg Hk.Mkuh

Areca palm, iwxks Bamboo, osGq_ os.kq (m)

Banyan, fuxzks?kks Bark, rpks Bassia, e/qdks Betel-vine uxyrk Branch, lk[kk Bud, edqya Buhch, e×tjh (f)

Cassia fistula, jkt#D[kks Cedar [kfnjks Champae, pEidks Cluster, Fkcdks Coconut palm, ukfGdsjks Coral-tree, fldlqdks Cotton-plant, dIiklh (f) Date-palm, [kTtwjh (f)

Ebony, dkGlkjks Fig-tree mnqEcjks Flower, iqIiQa_ dqlqea Fork (of a tree), foViks Grape-vine eqfídk Holy fig, vLlRFkks Ironwod tree, ukx#D[kks Joint, iCca Leaf, iÙka % i..ka Lotus, inqea Mango-tree, vEcks Marmello, csyqoks Margosa, fuEcq Marshy date-palm, fgUVkyks Palmyra-palm, rkyks Pandanus, dsrdh (m)

Parasite-plant, oUnkdk Pericarp, df..kdk Plant, xPNks_ yfRFk (f)

Plantain-tree, eksph_ dMfyr# (m) Red-lotus, dksduan Reed, uGks Root, ewya Rose-apple tree, tEcq#D[kks Sal-tree, lkyks Sandal-wood, pUnua Shrub, xqEcks Silk-cotton tree, flEcyh (m) Sprout, v˜qjks Stalk, o.Va Talipot palm, rkyh (f)

Tree, :D[kks_ r# (f.)

Hallow of a tree, dksVjks Trumpet-flower-tree ikVyh (f) Trunk, [kU/ks Twing, ilk[kk Vine, yrk Water-lily, mIiya White-water-lily, dqeqna Wood apple-tree, dfiRFkks White lotus, iq.Mjhda

10. Trees and vines, #D[kyrk

11. Medicinal Herbs and drugs, HkslTteqvknhuh Aloe-wood, vx# (m)

Aloe-perfotiala, vfeykrks Asafocetida, fg˜ı˜ (m)

Asparagus, lrkojh (f)

Babreng, foy˜ıa Beeswax, e/qfjRFka Bdellium, xqXxqGq (m)

Camphor, dIiwja Cardamom, ,Gk China-rose, t;lqeu Citron, ekrqyq˜ıks Clitoria, fxfjd..kh (f)

Cloves, yD˜ıa Collyrium, vTtua

Corrander, /kfu;a Ginger, flf˜ıosja Gum, fuÕ;klks Jasmine, tkfrlqeuka Lead-work, vfXxlf××krks Liquorice, e/qyfVòdk Mace, tkfrdkslks Musk, dRFkwfjdk Myrobalana belerica: foHkhVdh (f) Plyrobalana Emblica, vkeydh (f) Yellow myrobalana, gjhVdh (f) Yutmeg, tkfriQua Onis root, xksykseh (f) Prickly mightshade, fufnf…dk Red lead, fpuifiVòa Rasin, iD[k/qiks Rock-salt, flU/oks Sacrificial Grass, dqlks Saffron, dq˜ïea Sulphur, xU/da Swallow wort, vØïks Thorn-apple, mEeÙkks Wax, flRFkda Yellow-pigment, gfjrya

12. Animals, frjPNkuk Bear, vPNks Beast, ilq (m)

Beast of prey, okyks Beast of burden, okgdilq Bitch, lqu[kh (f)

Boa, vtxjks Buffalo, efglks Calf, oPNks] iksrdks Camel, vksVòks Cat, fcGkyks Cattle, xks (m)

Chamelcon, dd.Vdks Cobra, ukxks Colt, fdlksjks] g;iksrks Cow, xkoh (f)

Crab, dqGhjks Dear, fexks; female, fexh (f) Dog, lqu[kks Donkey, xnzHkks Elephant, gfRFk_ djh (m) She-elephant gfRFkuh (f) Elk, xksd..kks Female of an animal, /suq (f) Flying fox, iD[kfoGkyks Fox, flxkyks Frog, e.Mwdks Goat, ,Gdks] vtks Hare, llks Hide, pEea Hoof, [kqjks Horn, flUx Hump, ddq (m)

Hyena, rjPNks Iguana, xks/k Leopard, nhfi (m)

Lion, lhgks Lioness, lhgh (f)

Mare, cGok Mongoose, udqyks Monkey, okujks Ox, xks.kks Pig, lwdjks Porcupine, lŠks Quadruped, prqIinks Ram, es.Mks Rat, vk[kq (m)

Rat-snake, ?kjlIiks Rhineeros, [kXxfolk.kks Scorpion, fofPNdk Serpent, lIiks_ vfg (m)

Shark, edjks Tiger, C;kX/ksa Tortoise, dqEeks Turtle, dPNiks Viper, xksulks Wolf, odks

13. Birds and Insects, ifD[kuks] [kqítUroks p Ant, fiihfydk_ fdfifŠdk Red-ant, rEcfdfifŠdk White-ant, mifpdk Ant-hill, cfEedks Bat-large, trqdk Bat-small oXxqfy (f)

Beak, eq[krq.Ma Bee, e/qdjks] vfy (m)

Blue jay, fddh (m)

Bug, e.dq.kks Carpenter-bee, Hkejks Centipede, lrinh (m)

Cock, dqØï˜Vks Crane, cdks Crest, phjh (f)

Crow, dkdks Crow-she dkdh Curlew, dks×pk Dove, diksrks Drake, dknEcks Eagle, x#Gks Egg, v.Mks Feather, iRFka] is[kq.ka Flea, mIikrdks Fly, efD[kdk Goose, Ruddy, pØïokdks Grass hopper, lyHkks Gracula religiosia, lkfGdk Hawk, lsuks Hen, dqdqVh (f); ifD[k/suq (f) Herd, ;wFkks Heron, d.dks House-lizard, ?kjxksfGdk Indian-cuckoo dksfdyks Locust, ir˜ıks Leach, tkywdk Louse, mQdk Mosquito, edlks Nest, dqykodks Isprey, dqØï˜gks Owl, mGwdks Parrot, lqdks] lqoks Peacock, e;wjks Peacock’s tail, czfjga Pheasant, oudqØïVks Pigeon, ikjkorh Raven, dkdksyh Serpent’s body, Hkksxks Serpent’s slough fuEeksdks Serpent’s fang, lEinkBk] vklh (f) Sparrow, pkrdh Spider, m..kukHkh (m)

Swan, galks Venom, fola Vulture, fxT>ks Wing, iD[kks Worm, fdfe] dhVks

14. Gems and Minerals, jru [k.khtkuh Brass, jhjh (f) vkjdwVks Bronze, dalks Cats-eye, osGqfjia Copper, rEcks Coral, iokya Diamond, oftja